The Concept of Paradiplomacy in a Nutshell

A decades-old phenomenon has reemerged on the stage of international relations: paradiplomacy. Coined in the 1980s during the revival of federalism studies in political science, the term refers to international relations conducted directly between subnational levels of government. This can include states, provinces, or cities signing agreements with foreign countries, participating in international organizations, and establishing cultural and trade missions. With cities worldwide taking on global roles often bypassing national channels, paradiplomacy is becoming a new trend.

Examples of US States Pursuing Foreign Relations Independent of Washington

Even though the US has pulled out of the Paris Climate agreement, US states are free to pursue their own environmental goals independently of the national government. In February 2025, Governor Tim Walz of Minnesota of took a trip to The Netherlands to discuss the future of a clean industrial strategy. One might wonder why a state’s governor would take a trip to Europe as he might be perceived as insignificant in terms of economic and political influence. An important statistic explains this: Minnesota has close business relations with The Netherlands and 7,000 people in the state work for Dutch companies.

Another US state likewise has been stepping up its environmental initiative despite the foreign policy at the federal level: California. The state is a member of the Under2 Coalition, an international organization that focuses on CO2 emissions reductions. On June 9, 2022, California signed a memorandum of cooperation with Canada focusing on preventing biodiversity loss, reducing greenhouse gases, and scaling up clean technologies. These efforts accelerated California’s goal to transition to a 100% clean energy grid, passing laws to ban oil drilling, and launching a clean vehicle program for low-income residents.

The U.S. State Department’s Role in Paradiplomacy

On August 4, 2017, Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti appointed Nina Hachigan as Deputy Mayor for International Affairs. Her duties included advising the mayor on foreign investment and assisting the host committee with preparations for the 2028 Olympic and Paralympic Games. On October 3, 2022, the State Department under the Biden Administration appointed Hachigan as the US special representative for city and state diplomacy. Her tasks involved delivering the benefits of US foreign policy to the state levels, integrating local ideas into external affairs, and fostering connections between local governments and global partners. During her time working for the State Department, Hachigan hosted a summit for cities called the Cities Summit of the Americas. Its agenda was to gather consensus on transnational issues such as climate change, migration, mobility, and investment.

Paradiplomacy Enshrined in Belgium’s Constitution

Belgium has been active in the paradiplomacy space for decades. The country boasts a heavily decentralized governing structure, referred to in political science terms as consociationalism. Aside from a great extent of autonomy on domestic issues, this concept gives the three provinces of Belgium (Wallonia, Flanders, Brussels) the ability to set much of their own foreign policy agenda independently of the federal government. One region that stands out in its paradiplomacy efforts is Wallonia. It has representations abroad, negotiates and signs agreements with foreign governments, and creates economic opportunities. Wallonia and Flanders can also interfere with and veto trade agreements between Belgium and other country. Since Belgium is a member state of the EU, this gives the provinces a de facto veto power for all trade agreements the European Union seeks to make. In this context, Wallonia has historically been fairly protectionist due to concerns that social and environmental standards are not being acknowledged in trade agreements.

The Other Part of Belgium: Flanders

Flanders, on the other hand, is generally more receptive to free trade and has been more active in pursuing such opportunities. On April 1, 2025, Belgium’s King Philippe undertook a state visit to Vietnam to strengthen economic relations for the Flanders region. The main focus of the visit was climate change cooperation, which ranged from investing in sustainable energy solutions to exploring opportunities for joint research. An MoU was also signed with Vietrade, Vietnam’s trade promotion agency, to boost bilateral trade. The agreement focuses on sharing insights and promoting sustainable growth in both regions.

Paradiplomacy and International Development

Another ‘country within a country’ serves as a notable example of a different kind of paradiplomacy: Scotland and its international development strategy that operates fully independently of London. As early as 2005, Scotland signed its first agreement on international development with Malawi. It focused on sustainable economic development, health, and education. Fast forward 15 years and during the COVID-19 pandemic the relationship between the two showed that it was still going strong: Scotland helped with the supply of oxygen to Malawian hospitals. The Scottish government has also partnered with other African countries such as Mozambique and Burundi, and expanded its efforts to the Asian continent. Edinburgh’s motivations for engaging in international development differ from other subnational governments, which often focus on attracting foreign investment, such as in the above example of Flanders. The Scottish efforts are instead meant to promote a narrative of Scotland being a “good global citizen”. For those Scottish policymakers in favor of independence from the UK, their international strategy and reputation building could be a precursor to future recognition by those friendly nations.

Future of Paradiplomacy

As cities and provinces continue to emerge as economic powerhouses with GDPs larger than some nations, it appears likely that more subnational political leaders start looking at paradiplomacy as an option. Paradiplomacy oftentimes targets specific needs that a national government may not always address due to seemingly more important geopolitical issues or different visions of its foreign policy.