Kyrgyzstan and its Fascinating Religious Co-Existence

In Kyrgyzstan, Islam and nomadic spiritual traditions have co-existed and interacted in a syncretic manner since the introduction of Islam in the region. Missionary activity brought Islam to Central Asia between the 11th and the 16th centuries. Although Soviet rule enforced a policy of secularisation, various practices of faith featuring Islamic and nomadic traditions were still performed. In modern times, rituals and prayers often have notable overlap between the two belief systems. These two faiths continue to intersect and influence cultural traditions, governance around religious expression, and the Kyrgyz national identity as a whole.

Kyrgyz National Identity

While national identity results from the intersection of many identities, religion and indigenous culture remain especially prominent. After Kyrgyzstan gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, religious values shaped discussions about national identity for political leaders. In the post-Soviet period, several Kyrgyz intellectuals noted that nomadic values and traditions had re-emerged from Russian influence, once again shaping public life. Within these circles, some nationalist-oriented thinkers promoted the idea that Kyrgyz nomadic communities represented an early model of civilisation and communal living.

These ideas encouraged a sense of national pride and identity connected to Kyrgyzstan’s past instead of the Soviet Union. The Myth of Manas is a key example illustrating the development of the Kyrgyzstani identity. The epic was used as the origin story and groundwork for modern spiritual, religious, and cultural practices. Manas is honoured in modern times with statues and pilgrimages to Manas Ordo. He was believed to be the ancestor of the Kyrgyz people and a worshipper of the god, Tengir. Today, visits to Manas Ordo are undertaken both as cultural commemorations and as spiritual acts linked to national heritage.

Nomadic Religion in Kyrgyzstan

During the final years of the Soviet Union -the period of Perestroika- restrictions on public religious practices were eased. This allowed for the re-emergence of Islamic and nomadic traditions. Tengrism, a nomadic belief system, is rooted in the natural world. Its deities are associated with elements of nature, and its moral codes draw from observed natural phenomena. Tengrism’s contemporary revival was started by Dastan Sarygulov in the early 2000s. He leveraged his political status as State Secretary to connect Tengrism to the country’s national identity.

Scholars believe that this revival is intertwined with broader efforts to articulate a post-Soviet cultural identity. This movement is met with support by ethnonationalist groups, such as the Kyrgyz-Choroloru, for the emphasis on nomadic traditions. On the other hand, the revival is criticised by more institutionalised faiths, including members of Hanafi Sunni Islam, for the lack of standardised Islamic practices.

Beliefs and Practices in Tengrism

Tengrism celebrates a strong emphasis on the worship of the sky and the sun, Tengir, and the mountains, Tengir-too. These forces are considered divine and to foretell the future, cure ailments, and remove evil souls. In times of need, nomads looked to the Aruakh, or spirits of ancestors, and Tengir. Omurzak Mamaiusupov, a former director of the State Agency for Religious Affairs of Kyrgyzstan, describes Tengrism as the “Kyrgyz way of being Muslim.” Differences in cultures, lifestyle and faiths led to a less standardised and decentralised version o f Islam compared to other parts of the world.

Confluence of Nomadism and Islam

Nomadic communities lacked the institutional means necessary for traditional Islam. This was, for example, reflected in the absence of madrasas and buildings of worship. This resulted in the persistence of shamanism in the Kyrgyz Islamic practices, attempts to ‘purify’ Islam, and the clashing of moral principles. Murataly Zhumanov, former supreme mufti, noted that some local communities believed in Tengir and Allah being the same God. During a tülöö, a sacrificial ritual, prayers from the Qur’an were recited alongside invocations to Kökö Tengir. Sulaiman-Too, historically a sacred site for nomadic beliefs, later became an important Islamic landmark following the construction of a mosque at its peak. These practices are still seen today in Kyrgyzstan. Sulaiman-Too has 17 active places of worship on its peaks, which celebrate Islamic, nomadic, and hybrid faiths.

Tensions Between Islam and Nomadic Faiths

In southern Kyrgyzstan, Muslim movement seeks to rid their faith of Tengrism by refraining from cultural practices. The group will refrain from tying ribbons to sacred trees or burning herbs to ward off evil spirits. This shift was reinforced by the Hizb-ut-Tahrir, an Islamist movement, and by ethnic Uzbeks in the Fergana Valley. Backed by these two parties, Islamic schools and universities started to focus on what they considered as “purifying” the religion in the 1990s.

These reform efforts met resistance from the Kyrgyzstani state, which opposed certain practices, such as polygamy and stricter dress regulations. Those practices conflicted with existing legal and cultural norms. On the other hand, some nomadic rituals such as drinking alcohol at funerals, honouring ancestors as saints, and visiting mazars (graves), conflict with  standardised Islamic teachings. Starting in the 2010s, Tengrist activists, like Gulzat Aalieva, have claimed that the Kyrgyzstani government favours Islamic values and communities over Tengrism. Kyrgyzstani presidents have displayed varying levels of support for the two religious traditions. Former president Akayev developed national identity through the Myth of Manas, whereas a later president, Almazbek Atambayev, encouraged the spread of Islam. The ongoing tension between beliefs has resulted in a national identity reflective of Kyrgyzstan’s pluralistic nature.

Legal Changes

After the USSR’s collapse, Kyrgyzstan first guaranteed freedom of religion but later introduced amendments that expanded state control over religious activity. From 2014 to 2020, Atambayev signed a policy on religious expression to further centralise power and specifically to endorse the practice of Islam. In 2024, Kyrgyzstan passed a new set of policies concerning religious freedoms. According to the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom, these amendments were intended to uphold both “Kyrgyz traditions” and “traditional Islamic values.” Amongst other aspects, the amendments introduced restrictions on public religious dress, the use of religious terminology, ceremonial activities, and faith-based participation in political processes.

Curtailing the Freedom of Religion

Following these amendments, the Ministry of Internal Affairs officials and Muslim clergy have performed raids on non-traditional madrasas, mosques, and religious camps. Experts appointed by the United Nations Human Rights Council raised possible concerns about the 2024 policies violating international human rights law. These ongoing issues reflect long-standing tensions between Indigenous traditions, national politics, and standardised Islamic practices. But they also highlight how faith remains central in Kyrgyzstan’s national identity.