中国梦

A new phrase, coined by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), began to take hold in China’s political discourse from 2013 onwards: “The Chinese Dream”, or zhongguo meng (中国梦). The concept, introduced by Xi Jinping, framed China’s future as one of national rejuvenation (民族复兴). It meant economic prosperity, strengthened state power, and a reemergence as the world’s most powerful nation. Over time, policies ranging from large-scale infrastructure projects to more assertive territorial claims reflected this vision. These policies are often analyzed through the lens of neorealism’s strategic competition, but they are also rooted in a broader context in which nationalism and state legitimacy are interconnected in China.

天下

In Imperial China, from  221 BC to 1912 AD, the Chinese emperor was considered the Son of Heaven, ruling tianxia (天下), “all lands under heaven,” through the legitimacy of tianming (天命), the “Mandate of Heaven.” This mandate was conditional: An emperor retained legitimacy as long as crops were plentiful, there were no natural disasters, and a well-functioning government existed, reflecting the ideal datong (大同), or great harmony. China saw itself as the center of the world, with a domain of power that applied to kingdoms and people beyond its borders.

百年国耻

That era ended in 1912. The opium wars, unequal trade treaties with Europe and the US, the First Sino-Japanese War, and the Boxer Rebellion devastated China’s economy, society, and sovereignty. Foreign encroachment let China’s global position dwindle, and domestic rebellions ultimately overthrew the Qing dynasty, ending the Imperial era. Combined with the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), these events formed what China calls “the Century of Humiliation,” or bainian guochi (百年国耻). This idea that China’s former status of power ended with bainian guochi is front and center of the modern Chinese historical narrative of rejuvenation. Employed in political messaging and identity formation, it links Chinese identity, historical memory, and its national goals of today.

改革开放

After Mao Zedong’s rule (1949-1976) ended with his death, his successor Deng Xiaoping reassessed Maoist policies and introduced economic reforms that put China into a period of “reform and opening up”, gaigekaifang (改革开放). Despite their long-term success, the reforms initially brought hardship and unemployment to China. The result was the Three Beliefs Crisis, san xin weji (三个信念危机): It was a perfect storm of a crisis of faith in socialism, a crisis of belief in Marxism, and a crisis of trust in the CCP.  As a result, Chinese Intellectuals began looking to Western liberal ideals. Some called for Western-style democratic reform. And the old CCP ideology was shattered in the Tiananmen Square protest in 1989. Despite the brutal crackdown on the protests, the CCP’s legitimacy crisis further deepened after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

爱国主义

Amidst the turmoil, Jiang Zemin became General Secretary of the CCP. He stated in 1990, “The patriotism we advocate is by no means a parochial nationalism.” Jiang saw nationalism as a reactionary attachment to nationalities, whereas patriotism, aiguozhuyi (爱国主义), was love and support for China, its state, and the Communist Party. Emphasizing patriotism permitted the CCP to create a single Chinese nation. This must be seen in the context that approximately 60% of China’s territory is inhabited by minority nationalities. Under Communist ideology, Chinese citizens should focus on what they share and be part of a larger nation that binds them together.

爱国主义教育

To construct this version of nationalism, Jiang pursued the Patriotic Education Campaign (爱国主义教育). It focused on China reestablishing its prestige by regaining the territories it viewed as lost during the century of humiliation. Tradition and history, as well as territorial integrity and national unity, were the main themes of this approach. Previous narratives of China as the Great Empire were replaced by narratives of China as the victim. These narratives emphasized China’s traumatic and humiliating experience during Western and Japanese imperialism. It also had the benefit for the CCP leadership to refocus protests that were occurring at the time from anti-corruption and pro-democracy to anti-Japanese and anti-Western sentiments.

我是中国人

The central slogan of the Patriotic Education Campaign was “I am Chinese” (我是中国人). Under that mantra, students were taught to be proud of their Chinese identity. This was undertaken through a curriculum concentrating on the great achievements of the Chinese people and the CCP. National pride became closely linked to political stability. As seen in China’s sensitivity to foreign pressure, these efforts were successful. Despite widespread and well-known corruption by the CCP, Chinese citizens remained loyal to the government.

三个代表

Beyond educational programs, Jiang further strengthened the CCP’s claim to legitimacy by linking rapid economic liberalization to state-led nationalism. Driven by private-sector growth and WTO entry, Jiang’s socialist market economy emphasized national rejuvenation. The party adopted the “Three Represents” (sange daibao, 三个代表) ideology into its constitution. This included (1) the development of China’s advanced productive forces, (2) the orientation of China’s advanced culture, and (3) the claim for the party to represent the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the Chinese people. Combined with a robust foreign policy, this ideology made economic success a national mission.

習近平

In 2012, Xi Jinping, spelled in Chinese 習近平 was unanimously elected General Secretary of the CCP by CPC delegates. Xi introduced his “Chinese Dream” (中国梦), a more assertive approach to Chinese state-led nationalism. Xi Jinping Thought outlines his vision for national rejuvenation: becoming a fully developed, rich, and powerful nation with international influence by 2049. This year was not chosen at random, but is the 100-year anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China. As retired People’s Liberation Army Colonel Liu Mingfu said: “Through the cultivation of the martial spirit and military power, in addition to the accumulation of wealth, China can successfully reemerge as the most powerful nation in the world.”